Contexts: Otranto

Context:  Mr. William Shakespeares comedies, histories,& tragedies Published according to the true originall copies. Shakespeare, William. (1623)

During Shakespeare’s era plays were printed on quarto texts, quarter fold papers that were used by the playwright as well as opposing theaters looking to cash in on a well-received play.  Copyrights did not exist in the 16^th and 17^th centuries which led to various versions in print.  Many of Shakespeare’s plays were printed in “The First Folio” in 1623 posthumously and derived from these quarto texts or an actor’s memory (Folger).

In the second edition’s preface, Walpole attributes the Castle of Otranto’s literary design to “the great master of nature, [William] Shakespeare” boasting pride in “having imitated, however faintly…so masterly a pattern” (Walpole 10, 14).  Any questions to this claim arising post-publication are squashed with the multitude of Shakespearean references and stylistic inclusions that proliferate throughout the text.  For example, Manfred follows a spectre believing he is a distant ancestor crying “Lead on!...I will follow thee to the gulf of perdition” (Walpole 26).  While in Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the Prince promises his ghostly father to “follow thee.”  These ghostly images in both authors’ works employ a dramatic device not only to engage the audience in the mystical, but to serve as the characters’ doppelgangers.  Both in Macbeth and Otranto, the plot relies heavily on prophecy as the propelling motion and, quite similarly, the predictor of ultimate demise.  Another Shakespearean influence comes in the underlying political tone satirizing divine right and the succession of bloodlines as seen in Macbeth, Richard II, Hamlet and Julius Caesar (Walpole 17, 18, 26, and 69).  Though, Shakespeare avoids voicing his political stance directly, his plays appear to filter the political and social concerns of the public (Blair 30). Similarly, Walpole’s Otranto subtly comments on the political climate of 18^th century Britain.

Context: Temora, an ancient epic poem, in eight books: together with several other poems, composed by Ossian, the son of Fingal. Macpherson, James (1763)

Temora depicts the conquests and experiences of Fingal, an Irish warrior from the 3^rd century.   The poet, Ossian, was part of a warrior group of Fianna in the Ireland and Scotland region.  He has been hailed one of the greatest poets and greatly influenced many poets, writers, and artists of the romantic period.  Temora was published along with Fingal (1762) as an original Gaelic epic poem work originating in the 3^rd and 4^th century.  However, contention surrounded the works of their authenticity due to the inclusion of modern writing techniques, such as alliteration, and historical discrepancies in the “translation” (Brannock).  They were eventually proven as forgeries, a personal quest of Samuel Johnson.  The works, though not authentic to the era, were rooted in the Highland traditions.

Walpole's Otranto mirrors the intention of Johnson's Ossian epics in producing work equivalent of the Gothic age which was "conducive to the free play of imagination and... poetic inspiration" of the era (Clery x). It was widely entertained that this kind of ingenious literary work was not possible in Age of Enlightenment.  Though Walpole indicated his doubts on the authenticity of the works, he admitted his great appreciation. He also included such dramatic devices such as ghosts or spectres and the mistaken slayings of loved ones similar to Temora and Fingal.  Despite the contention surrounding both Otranto and the Ossian epics, they were extremely popular and are considered masterful examples of literary works.

Context: Honor, Military, and Civill by Sir William Segar. (1602)

Sir William Segar published his work "Honor, Military, and Civill" in London in 1602. The subject of the texts includes "military law, knighthood and its orders, and civil precedence" (Miller 516-517). Segar wrote the most intensive study of those subjects mentioned up to its time, using the sources of many Renaissance and classical documentations. One such documentation that Segar profoundly used, and modeled his chapter organization after was the Pandectae Triumphales written by Francois Modius and published in 1586.

The explanatory notes in the back of The Castle of Otronto state that Walpole most likely used Segar's Honor, Military, and Civill as a source for his representation of medieval chivalry. Specifically, Walpole called upon that source for his representation of the "reception of the stranger knight and his train" (Walpole 64). The order of the train's arrival is noted specifically by Walpole, "First came two harbingers...Next a herald, followed by two pages and two trumpets. Then a hundred footguards...as many horses. After them fifty footmen...Then a led horse. Two heralds on each side of a gentleman on horseback" (Walpole 64-65). Walpole was well read and well versed in the subject of medieval architecture, which he modeled his home, Strawberry Hill, after. This specific scene in The Castle of Otronto illustrates his knowledge of medieval culture as well. Walpole's representation of medieval behaviors does not only put the characters in context of their setting, but it also deepens the characters of Otronto. As the procession of the knight, Frederic, and his train, Manfred notices the banner Frederic is carrying. Walpole needed knowledge of medieval crest in order to describe this adequately. The banner bears the "arms of Vicenza and Otronto quarterly- a circumstance that much offended Manfred" (Walpole 65). Here, Manfred notices that someone has arrived as a guest to his castle bearing claim to it. Walpole uses this circumstance to foreshadow the rightful owner of Otronto, as well as deepen the understanding of Manfred being wrong in his attempts to secure his political rank.

Context: Letters on Chivalry and Romance by Richard Hurd (1762)
Richard Hurd, and his 1762 work, presented a different sort of Gothic criticism. The introduction of The Castle of Otronto accounts that Hurd's essays were "arguing that gothic writing should be appreciated on its own terms, as the product of other times" (Clery x). Walpole would have been very interested in Hurd's different way of criticizing his beloved Gothic culture. Hurd's essays, including Letters on Chivalry and Romance were controversial in their time, not for the public, who made Hurd very popular, but to the philosophers, theorist, and writers. His works challenged the belief that human's sense of morality to be natural and universal. He also did not advocate for an oligarchic culture in a world which praised and fed off of such a society (During 317). Hurd was inspired by an instance in which Milton was charged of plagiary in the Gentleman's Magazine, which happened in the 1740s. Hurd stated, readers are "often at a loss to discern the original from the copy" (During 317). He became obsessed with this epistemological crisis, which I believe Walpole to be very concerned about as well. Hurd began to argue in his essays that if we believe human nature to be the same in all places and times, then perhaps it is possible for people to construct original ideas that closely mimic each other (During 317). Walpole illustrates this epistemological crisis of people determining what is real and not real, when faced with both, in The Castle of Otronto. First of all, Walpole presents his fictional story as a found historical manuscript in the preface. The first line of the preface of the first edition reads, "The following work was found in the library of an ancient catholic family in the north of England" (Walpole 5). The characters of The Castle of Otronto are also faced with this epistemological crisis as well. As supernatural phenomena continue to happen on the castle's grounds, the first of which, a helmet falling from the sky, sets the plot into motion, the characters have to chose whether or not they believe what is actually happening and whether or not they should be afraid. This occurs throughout the book as more evidence of it being a horror story are revealed. The question of the reality of objects is also illustrated in the novel. Matilda claims she is not fit for marriage, that she does not desire that for herself. However, as her maid Bianca relates to the reader, Matilda admires a portrait of Alfonso that hangs in the castle, swoons after it often. "..a young hero resembling the picture of the good Alfonso in the gallery, which you sit and gaze at for hours together" is who Bianca teases would be the only lover Matilda would requite (Walpole 40). In this case, the epistemological crisis Walpole presents his reader, and his characters, with, is the reality of objects versus living people but also both of their ability to affect human's with the same capacity.

Context: Portrait of Leopold Prince of Saxe-Coburg

Prince Alfonso - 

This is a photo of Leopold Prince of Saxe-Coburg.  This was a portrait that was painted around the same time as the Castle of Otranto was written. This could very much resemble the type of portrait of Prince Alfonso that would have been found in the Castle. “a lovely young prince with large black eyes, a smooth white forehead, and manly curling locks of jet” (46). This type of portrait is what would have been found glorifying the noble princes and knights that were greatly respected and loved by the people. 

Context: Castle of Otranto (1758)  By: Muntz, Johann Heinrich 

This is a pencil and pen painting of the East View of Strawberry Hill done in 1758 by J.H. Muntz. This is a clear representation of Strawberry Hill, which is most likely the home that Castle of Otranto was based on. There are multiple correspondences between Walpole and multiple of his acquaintances, such as Reverend William Cole and George Montagu, explaining his love for Strawberry Hill. These correspondences are evidence of Walpole’s use of Strawberry Hill as a basis for the Castle of Otranto. 

Context: The Crusades and Temporal Setting

The Crusades, simply put, were several militant pilgrimages to reclaim the Holy Land by Christians under the order of the Church or Pope. After the First Crusade, the Holy Land, Jerusalem, was the subject of about 200 years of struggle for control, spanning nine major crusades and some smaller ones. In the first preface of The Castle of Ontranto, Walpole (under the guise of William Marshal) explains that the novel was, if written when it was supposed to have happened, "...must have been between 1095, the era of the first crusade, and 1243, the date of the last, or not long afterwards" (Walpole 5). He also says, due to the Spanish names of the domestics indicating "that this work was not composed until the establishment of the Arragonian kings in Naples" (5). The first king of the Aragon family to have conquered Sicily was in 1282, however the Aragon kings had influence in Spain since much earlier. Due to Jerome's story of his marriage to Victoria's daughter, it's likely that Alfonso on his way to the Holy Land near the end of the Crusades, with an estimate of 40 years to the story (generously assuming Victoria's daughter to be 20 when birthing Theodore, and assuming Theodore is 20 in the novel.) Jaffa (Joppa) is near where Frederic discovered the woods with the sword and hermit. Jaffa was frequently visited during the crusades due to its proximity to Jerusalem, and was under crusader control from 1188 until 1268. With Frederic being captured by "infidels" for an unknown amount of time, again we have to assume the age of Isabella in order to find which Crusade Frederic took place in, which would determine the true time period of the novel. Walpole possibly gives "the monk" the 200 year gap as to not need to worry about writing too specifically or accurately, and letting the story speak for itself.

  

Timeline: Sidney Bidulph

1611: King James Bible
Work on this version of the Bible was brought about by King James I of England in 1604 with some persuasion from Puritan president of Corpus Christi College, John Reynolds. Reynolds appealed to King James on this matter by convincing him “that there might be a new translation of the Bible, because those which were allowed in the reigns of Henry the eighth, and Edward the sixth, were corrupt and not answerable to the truth of the Original.” There were 47 of the best biblical scholars and linguists of the time chosen to work on the new translation.
This event is significant because of the multiple references to the King James Bible throughout The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Bidulph. This translation of the Bible was produced by the King James for England because of their desire for the authenticity of their teachings in the church. So they created their own translation that they knew to be as close to the original as they desired. This version of the Bible was prominent in the church during the time when Miss Bidulph’s memoirs were published, which helps us to comprehend the abundance of references to verses from this translation within the novel.

Eighteenth Century (1700’s): The English country house
Ownership of country homes in England actually began in medieval times, but as it applies to The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Bidulph, we will just be describing the importance of these estates during the eighteenth century. With land as a signifier of wealth, it was not uncommon for prosperous English families to own a house in town (in Sidney Bidulph, this town is London, but could also be in Dublin or Edinburgh) and a house in the countryside. These homes may be referred to as manors or halls, as we see throughout Sidney Bidulph. Owners of such houses would spend some of the year in their town home, with the remainder of the year being spent in their country house. The country house was typically staffed with workers, providing an important opportunity of employment for rural communities. The English country house was a prominent part of society until the rise of taxation and wage bills during the first part of the 20th century.
Understanding the ownership of English country houses is significant to The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Bidulph because it helps us to comprehend why the characters, such as the Bidulphs and Mr. Faulkland, are switching locations as often as they do. Becoming knowledgeable about the English country house, also, aids in our understanding of the English economy at the time and helps us to comprehend the wealth that was flowing around at the time among the prosperous, especially among the Bidulph’s and their companions.

1702-1714: The Reign of Queen Anne
Queen Anne was born in 1665 to James II. During the revolution she backed William III over her father and took the throne in 1702 after his death. Anne was born during the turbulent religious debates in the country over whether or not England should be Catholic or Protestant, as for Anne, she was raised and ruled protestant. Religion was very important to the English people at this time, a sentiment that is reflected in The Memoirs of Sidney Bidulph throughout the novel as Sidney reflects on the "christian thing to do" to or what her duty is as a christian. The novel states at the beginning that it starts at the beginning of Queen Anne's reign, which is interesting as this is not the time that the novel was written, so Sheridan could have placed the story at any time period. I believe Anne's reign is significant because Sidney Bidulph as a novel seems to be interested at least to some degree with mothers. As stated in class, Queen Anne grabbed power by perpetuating the idea of her being a good mother and Blythe describes Anne as the "mother to the people of England." These thoughts further the idea that perhaps Queen Anne's reign is significant in the novel due to her motherliness.

1727: Daniel Defoe Essay
In 1727 Daniel Defoe commented on marriage as "legalized prostitution" in his essay "Conjugal Lewdness or, Matrimonial Whoredom." By this he meant that marriage in and of itself was essentially a business deal, a contract that people used to get money, land, or titles. People of course meaning men as women could not own land or (much) money. This idea is very much demonstrated in The Memoirs of Sidney Bidulph as the novel discusses marriage throughout its entirety. A particularly poignant moment that we witness this is when Mr. Arnold kicks Sidney out of the house and Sidney has to leave her children behind because children are of course property. The novel is clearly interested in the same idea that this essay presents, that women have little to no choice in who they marry as courtship and marriage are seen more as business deals, so they can only really be worried about negotiating a good deal.

18th Century as a whole, highlighting 1720s-1760s: Conduct Books and the Shift to Novels
Although Conduct Books had become a common form of publication leading into the 18th century, the 1700s saw a great shift in their use and their interpretation. Quite a few of these books were published between the 1720s and the 1760s, some examples being "An Enquiry into [...] the Better Preventing of Clandestine Marriages" by Henry Stebbing and Mary Cooper in 1753, as well as "English Housewifry, exemplified in above Four Hundred and Fifty Receipts" by Elizabeth Moxon in 1764. These publications were a very large part of English society, as it is how young women were expected to present themselves or not present themselves throughout their lives or in public settings.
The importance of the 18th century to these books was that it presented the grounds for a shift in the genre. The Conduct Books began to see the rise of more female writers and the boundaries that they began to push, eventually breaking through to see the possibilities of more female novelists who did not have to remain anonymous with their publications. This time period saw conduct books shift into novels, which turned out to be the inspiration for many great writers, and females, such as Jane Austen.

Data Visualization: Sidney Bidulph

Data Visualization: The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Bidulph

Faulkland and Arnold

 When we compared the mentions of Faulkland’s name to the mentions of Arnold’s, the results were kind of surprising. Considering the fact that Arnold is her husband, and that they call Sidney herself “Mrs. Arnold” from there on out, it would seem likely that Arnold’s name would pop up more frequently than Faulkland’s, or at least that there would be sections where Arnold was mentioned more. However, Faulkland’s and Arnold’s names follow a very similar curve, with exception to the start and end of the book, where we meet Faulkland and where Sidney ends up marrying him at last. Faulkland was mentioned 656 times, and Arnold was mentioned a total of 490.

Sidney claims to have moved past Faulkland, but many of the mentions of Arnold’s names were followed relatively closely by a mention of Faulkland’s, even when Sidney claims not to be thinking of him. Despite the fact that their relationship is over, Faulkland is always present, perhaps moreso that Sidney would like to admit.

Duty and Obligation

I noticed in the visual manipulation of the words duty and obligation, the word obligation peaks when the word duty is making its second decline. Also, the words correlate with what is happening in the novel. In the beginning of the novel, Sidney has obligations to her family (mother) and to be a suitable woman in society. Those obligations. After she marries Mr. Arnold, her obligations change to her husband and to her children; they have more weight in her life that having the obligations toward her mother. 

Duty

 Throughout the novel, The Memoirs of Sidney Bidulph, Sidney has a duty to her family. As the novel progresses, her sense of duty gradually diminishes and then rises again after Mr. Arnold dies. She had a high sense of duty to her family because she had to represent herself as the perfect 18^th century woman. She had to be the “Angel in the House” so to speak. She had to be chaste and have decorum as well as keeping her family name out of the papers.

Obligation

Sidney’s obligations in the beginning of the novel all start with her mother. In the beginning of the novel, her obligation to her mother was to get married. Then her obligation was to say faithful to her husband, Mr. Arnold, who was unfaithful. Sidney’s obligation by this time in the novel was to forgive her husband and “let it go”. 

Fate and Accident

Would Sidney Bidulph attribute an accident to fate or vice versa?

In considering the use of accident and fate in The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Bidulph, logically, the first guess would be that the two words should coincide with each other frequently.  However, the graph shows a different scenario in which quite often when the use of one peaks, the other dips in usage.  This might seem strange.  However, when the religious undertones of the novel are taken into account, the graph makes a great deal more sense.  When “accidents” occur in the life of Miss Bidulph, she must choose to see them as either accidents or fate.  She cannot see them as both.  Since fate would, to Sidney, constitute an act of the Almighty, it would certainly not be seen as an accident.  Likewise, if she chooses to see something as an accident, she would not dare to attribute it to fate or God.  Therefore, uses of the two words are by necessity separate.

Joy and Sorrow

The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Bidulph, it can be argued revolves around the potential for joy, but more often the experienced sorrow of Sidney. By examining the oldest definitions of both words in the Oxford English Dictionary, it is easy to see how joy and sorrow meant the same then as it does now. The OED defines joy as “a vivid emotion of pleasure arising from a sense of well-being or satisfaction,” and sorrow as “mental distress caused by loss, suffering, disappointment, etc” (OED). Most interestingly, in a novel that is fully consumed with the events of Sidney Bidulph’s life, she speaks of joy more than sorrow for most of the novel. The only place that speaking of sorrow spikes is where we would expect that to happen - at the beginning of the novel and when she speaks of her husband’s death. To the reader, these observation might seem opposite of what would be expected, but in fact are perfectly in line with Sidney’s perfect conduct. She is not overly emotional, but instead expresses herself appropriately for her station, even in her own personal journals.